Personality Development

Psychology 593

Fall 2007

 

Location:          Psych 815

Time:                Thursdays 9:00 – 11:50

Instructor:         Brent W. Roberts

Office:              411

Office hours      Thursdays 12-1 or by appointment

Phone #:           3-2644

e-mail               broberts@cyrus.psych.uiuc.edu

 

Overview:

           

The goal of the course is to examine the theoretical positions and empirical data on adult personality development.  Topics will include life-span development, evidence for continuity and change in personality over time, the effects of social and historical contexts on personality development, mechanisms that promote change, mechanisms that promote continuity, the role of genetics in personality development, and recent controversies and articles on personality development in adulthood.

 

Course structure:

           

The weekly meetings will include a review of the target area and discussion of the assigned readings.  We will go through the reading list in order of topic.  You will be expected to read approximately 4 articles per week—sometimes less, sometimes more.  We will plan the particular reading expectations each week depending on how much we get through.  The readings will be posted on the course web site (go to my home page) and through the library (on-line).

 

Course requirements:

 

  1. Article Overviews:  Students will be asked in class to provide brief overviews of articles throughout the semester.  This constitutes one of the major responsibilities and components of class participation. 
  2. Paper:  Given the state of the field of personality development, there is a dire need for new thinking in terms of the critical environments that affect personality development at different stages of the life course.  For your course paper you will choose a period of the life course and propose the key environments that affect personality at a given point in the life course.  We will discuss these projects throughout the semester.  Papers will be due on December 6th (last day of class).

Readings

1.                  Papers in bold are required reading.

2.                  Any remaining articles are recommended reading

 

 

The Meager Theoretical Perspectives

 

Baltes, P.B. (1987).  Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: On the dynamics between growth and decline.  Developmental Psychology, 3, 611-626.

Baltes, P.B. (1997).  On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny.  American Psychologist, 52, 366-380.

Erikson, E. (1950).  Childhood and society.  New York, NY: Norton.

Fraley, C., & Roberts, B. W.  (2005).  Patterns of Continuity: A Dynamic Model for Conceptualizing the Stability of Individual Differences in Psychological Constructs Across the Life Course.  Psychological Review, 112, 60-74.

Lerner, R. M., & Tubman, J. G.  (1989).  Conceptual issues in studying continuity and discontinuity in personality development across the life course.  Journal of Personality, 57, 343-373.

Levinson, D. J.  (1978).  The seasons of a man’s life.  New York: Ballentine.

Levinson, D. J.  (1986).  A conception of adult development.  American Psychologist, 41, 3-13.

McCrae, R. R, Costa, P. T. Jr, Ostendorf, F., Angleitner, A., Hrebickova, M., Avia, M. D., Sanz, J., Sanchez-Bernardos, M. L., Kusdil, M. E., Woodfield, R., Saunders, P. R., Smith, P. B.  (2000).  Nature over nurture: Temperament, personality, and life span development. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology. 78, 173-186.

McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T.  (1994).  The stability of personality: Observation and evaluations.  Current Directions in Psychological Science, 3, 173-175.

Neugarten, B.L. (1977).  Personality and aging. In J.E. Birren & K.W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging. (pp. 626-649).  New York, NY: Van Nostrand Rienhold.

Runyan, W. M. (1978).  The life course as a theoretical orientation: Sequences of person-situation interaction.  Journal of Personality, 46, 569-593.

Roberts, B. W., & Wood, D.  (2006).  Personality development in the context of the Neo-Socioanalytic Model of personality (Chapter 2, pp. 11-39).  In D. Mroczek & T. Little (Eds.), Handbook of Personality Development.  Mahwah, NJ: Lawrance Erlbaum Associates.

Roberts, B.W., Wood, D, & Caspi, A. (in press). Personality Development.  In O.P. John, R.W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: theory and research (3rd edition).  New York, NY: Guilford.

Roberts, B. W., Wood, D., & Smith, J. L.  (2005). Evaluating Five Factor Theory and Social Investment Perspectives on Personality Trait Development.  Journal of Research in Personality, 39, 166-184.

Sameroff, A.J. (1995).  General systems theories and developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & D.J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental Psychopathology. (pp. 659-695).  New York: Wiley.

Vaillant, G. E.  (1977).  Adaptation to life.  Boston: Little, Brown.

 

Continuity and Change Processes/Mechanisms

 

Baumeister, R. F.  (1994).  The crystallization of discontent in the process of major life change.  In T. Heatherton, & J. L. Weinberger (Eds.), Can Personality Change? (pp. 281-298). Washington DC: APA.

Block, J.  (1982).  Assimilation, accommodation, and the dynamics of personality development. Child Development, 53, 281-295.

Freund, A. M., & Riediger, M.  (2006).  Goals as building blocks of personality and development. In Mroczek, Daniel K.; Little, Todd D. (Eds.). Handbook of personality development. (pp. 353-372). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Hellervik, L. W., Hazucha, J. F., & Schneider, R. J.  (1992).  Behavior Change: Models, methods, and a review of evidence.  In The Handbook of Industrial/Organizational Psychology (Vol 3).  Davies-Black.

Holt, R. R. (1964).  Forcible indoctrination and personality change.  In P. Worchel & D. Byrne (Eds.),  Personality change. (pp. 289-318).  New York: John Wiley.

Kiecolt, K.J. (1994).  Stress and the decision to change oneself: A theoretical model.  Social Psychology Quarterly, 57, 49-63.

Lang, F. R., Reschke, F. S., & Neyer, F. J.  (2006).  Social Relationships, transitions, and personality development across the life span.  In Mroczek, Daniel K.; Little, Todd D. (Eds.). Handbook of personality development. (pp. 445-468). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Laub, J.H., & Sampson, R.J. (1993).  Turning points in the life course: Why change matters to the study of crime.  Criminology, 31, 301-325.

Messer, S.B., & Warren, S. (1990).  Personality change and psychotherapy. In L. Pervin (Ed.),  Handbook of personality theory and research.  New York: Guildford Press.

Miller, W. R., & C’deBaca, J.  (1994).  Quantum change: toward a psychology of transformation.  In T. Heatherton, & J. L. Weinberger (Eds.), Can Personality Change?  (pp. 253-280). Washington DC: APA.

Neugarten, B.L. (1968).  Age norms, age constraints, and adult socialization. In B.L. Neugarten (Ed.), Middle age and aging: A reader in social psychology.  Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Roberts, B. W.  (2006).  Personality development and organizational behavior (Chapter 1, pp 1-41).  In B. M. Staw (Ed.).  Research on Organizational Behavior. Elsevier Science/JAI Press.

Roberts, B. W., & Caspi, A.  (2003). The cumulative continuity model of personality development: Striking a balance between continuity and change in personality traits across the life course.  R. M. Staudinger & U. Lindenberger (Eds.), Understanding Human Development: Lifespan Psychology in Exchange with Other Disciplines (pp. 183-214).  Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Sarbin, T.R. (1964).  Role theoretical interpretation of psychological change. In P. Worchel & D. Byrne (Eds.),  Personality change. (pp. 176-219).  New York: John Wiley.

Vallerand, R.J., & Bissonnette, R. (1992).  Intrinsic, extrinsic, and motivational styles as predictors of behavior: A prospective study.  Journal of Personality, 60, 599-620.

Wachs, T. D. (1994).  Fit, context, and the transition between temperament and personality. In C.F. Halverson, Jr., G.A. Kohnstamm, & R.P. Martin (Eds.), The developing structure of temperament and personality from infancy to adulthood. (pp. 209-220).  Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Wood, D., & Roberts, B. W.  (2006).  Cross-sectional and longitudinal tests of the personality and role identity structural model (PRISM).  Journal of Personality, 74, 779- 809.

 

The Histories:  Critical Papers From the Early Years of Longitudinal Research

 

Bloom, B. S.  (1964).  Stability and Change in Human Characteristics.  New York: Wiley.

Caspi, A., & Herbener, E.S. (1990).  Continuity and change: Assortative marriage and the consistency of personality in adulthood.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 250-258.

Conley, J. J.  (1984).  The hierarchy of consistency: A review and model of longitudinal findings on adult individual differences in intelligence, personality, and self-opinion.  Personality and Individual Differences, 5, 11-26.

Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1988).  Personality in adulthood:  A six-year longitudinal study of self-reports and spouse ratings on the NEO Personality Inventory.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 853-863.

Elder, G.H., Jr. (1979).  Historical change in life patterns and personality. In P.B. Baltes & O.G. Brim, Jr. (Eds.),  Life-span development and behavior. (Vol.2, pp.117-159). New York: Academic Press.

Field, D., & Millsap, R.E. (1991). Personality in advanced old age: Continuity or change? Journal of Gerontology : Psychological Sciences, 46, 299-308.

Finn, S.E. (1986).  Stability of personality self-ratings over 30 years: Evidence for an age-cohort interaction.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 813-818.

Huesmann, L.R., Eron, L.D., Lefkowitz, M.M., & Walder, L.O. (1984). Stability of aggression over time and generations. Developmental Psychology, 20, 1120-1134.

Kelly, E.L. (1955). Consistency of adult personality. American Psychologist, 10, 659-681.

Leon, G.R., Gillum, B., Gillum, R., & Gouze, M. (1979). Personality stability and change over a 30 year period- Middle age to old age. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 517-524.

Haan, N., Millsap, R., & Hartka, E. (1986). As time goes by: Change and stability in personality over fifty years. Psychology and Aging, 1, 220-232.

Helson, R., Mitchell, V., & Moane, G. (1984).  Personality and patterns of adherence and nonadherence to the social clock.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 1079-1096.

Helson, R., & Moane, G. (1987). Personality change in women from college to midlife. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 176-186.

Helson, R., & Wink, P. (1992). Personality change in women from the early 40s to the early 50s. Psychology and Aging, 7, 46-55.

Mortimer, J.T., Finch, M.D., & Kumka, D.S. (1982).  Persistence and change in development: The multi-dimensional self concept. In P.B. Baltes & O.G. Brim, Jr. (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior. (Vol.4, pp.164-310).  New York: Academic Press.

Stevens, D. P., & Truss, C.V. (1985). Stability and change in adult personality over 12 and 20 years. Developmental Psychology, 21, 568-584.

Stewart, A. J., & Healy, J. M.  (1989).  Linking individual development and social changes.  American Psychologist, 44, 30-42.

Vaillant, G.E. (1976).  Natural history of male psychological health: V. The relation of choice of ego mechanisms of defense to adult adjustment.  Archives of General Psychiatry, 33, 535-545.

Whitbourne, S. K., Zuschlag, M. K., Elliot, L. B., & Waterman, A. S. (1992). Psychosocial development in adulthood: A 22-year sequential study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 260-271.

Woodruff, D.S. (1983). The role of memory in personality continuity: A 25 year follow-up. Experimental Aging Research, 9, 31-34.

Woodruff, D.S., & Birren, J.E. (1972).  Age changes and cohort differences in personality.  Developmental Psychology, 6, 252-259.

 

 

The General: Big Overviews/Meta-Analyses

 

Ardelt, M. (2000). Still stable after all these years? Personality stability theory revisited. Social Psychology Quarterly, 63, 392-405.

Bazana, P. G., & Stelmack, R. M.  (2004).  Stability of personality across the life span: A meta-analysis.  In R. M. Stelmack (Ed.).  On the psychobiology of personality (Chapter 8, pp. 113-144).  New York: Elsevier.

Caspi, A., Roberts, B. W., Shiner, R.  (2005).  Personality development.  Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 453-484.

Fraley, R. C. (2002). Attachment stability from infancy to adulthood: Meta-analysis and dynamic modelling of developmental mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6, 123-151.

Low, D. K., S., Yoon, M., Roberts, B. W., & Rounds. J.  (2005).  The stability of interests from early adolescence to middle adulthood: A quantitative review of longitudinal studies.  Psychological Bulletin, 131, 713-737.

Roberts, B. W., & DelVecchio, W. F.  (2000). The rank-order consistency of personality from childhood to old age: A quantitative review of longitudinal studies.  Psychological Bulletin, 126, 3-25.

Roberts, B. W., Walton, K. & Viechtbauer, W.  (2006).  Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 1-25.

Roberts, B. W., Wood, D., & Smith, J. L.  (2005). Evaluating Five Factor Theory and social investment perspectives on personality trait development.  Journal of Research in Personality, 39, 166-184.

Schuerger, J.M., Zarrella, K.L., & Hotz, A.S. (1989).  Factors that influence the temporal stability of personality by questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 777-783.

 

Empirical Framing: Recent Work on Personality Continuity and Change

 

Childhood to adulthood: Recent Studies

 

Caspi, A., Harrington, H., Milne, B., Amell, J.W., Theodore, R.F., & Moffitt, T.E. (2003). Children's behavioral styles at age 3 are linked to their adult personality traits at age 26. Journal of Personality, 71, 495-513.

Deal, J. E., Halverson, C. F., Havill, V., & Martin, R. P.  (2005).  Temperament factors as longitudinal predictors of young adult personality.  Merrrill-Palmer Quarterly, 51, 315-334.

De Fruyt, F., Bartels, M., Van Leeuwen, K.G., De Clercq, B., Decuyper, M., & Mervielde, I. (2006). Five types of personality continuity in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 538-552.

Hart D., Eisenberg N., Valiente C.  (2007). Personality change at the intersection of autonomic arousal and stress.  Psychological Science, 18, 492-497.

Kieras, Jessica E.1; Tobin, Renée M.2; Graziano, William G.3; Rothbart, Mary K. (2006). You Can't Always Get What You Want: Effortful Control and Children's Responses to Undesirable Gifts. Psychological Science. Vol 16(5), May 2005, pp. 391-396

Kochanska, G., & Aksan, N. (2004). Development of Mutual Responsiveness Between Parents and Their Young Children. Child Development, 75. 1657-1676.

Kochanska, G., & Knaack, A.  (2003). Effortful control as a personality characteristic of young children: Antecedents, correlates, and consequences. Journal of Personality, 71, 1087-1112.

Kokko, K., & Pulkkinen, L. (2000). Aggression in childhood and long-term unemployment in adulthood: A cycle of maladaptation and some protective factors. Developmental Psychology. 36, 463-472.

Lamb, M. E., Chuang, S. S., Wessels, H., Broberg, A. G., & Hwang, C. P.  (2002).  Emergence and construct validation of the Big Five factors in early childhood: A longitudinal analysis of their ontongeny in Sweden.  Child Development, 73, 1517-1524.

Laursen, B., Pulkkinen, L., & Adams, R. (2002). The antecedents and correlates of agreeableness in adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 38, 591-603.

Rothbart, M. K., Bates, J. E., Eisenberg, N., Damon, W., Lerner, Richard M. (2006). Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3, Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed.). (pp. 99-166). Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc. xxiv, 1128 pp.

Saarni, C.  (2006).  Emotion regulation and personality development in childhood. In Mroczek, Daniel K.; Little, Todd D. (Eds.). Handbook of personality development. (pp. 245-262). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Shiner, Rebecca L. Temperament and Personality in Childhood. (2006). In Mroczek, Daniel K.; Little, Todd D. (Eds.). Handbook of personality development. (pp. 213-230). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Tobin, R. M., & Graziano, W. G.  (2006).  Development of regulatory processes through adolescence: A review of recent empirical studies. In Mroczek, Daniel K.; Little, Todd D. (Eds.). Handbook of personality development. (pp. 263-283). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

 

Adulthood: Recent Studies

 

Allemand, M., Zimprich, D., & Hertzog, C.  (2007).  Cross-sectional age differences and longitudinal age changes of personality in middle adulthood and old age.  Journal of Personality, 75, 1-36.

Hampson, S. E., & Goldberg, L. R.  (2006).  A first large cohort study of personality trait stability over the 40 years between elementary school and midlife.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 763-779.

Helson, R., Jones, C., & Kwan, V.S.Y. (2002). Personality change over 40 years of adulthood: Hierarchical linear modeling analyses of two longitudinal samples. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 83, 752-766.

Johnson, W., Hicks, B. M., McGue, M., Iacono, W. G. (2007). Most of the girls are alright, but some aren't: Personality trajectory groups from ages 14 to 24 and some associations with outcomes.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 266-284.

McAdams, D. P., Bauer, J. J., Sakaeda, A. R., Anyidoho, N. A., Machado, M. A., Magrino-Failla, K., White, K. W., & Pals, J. L.  (2006).  Continuity and change in the life story: A longitudinal study of autobiographical memories in emerging adulthood.  Journal of Personality, 74, 1372-1400.

Pullmann, H., Raudsepp, L., & Allik, J. (2006). Stability and change in adolescents’ personality: A longitudinal study. European Journal of Personality, 20, 447–459

Roberts, B. W., Caspi, A, & Moffitt, T.  (2001).  The kids are alright: Growth and stability in personality development from adolescence to adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 670-683.

Roberts, B. W., O’Donnell, M., & Robins, R. W.  (2004). Goal and personality development.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 541-550.

Robins, R. W., Fraley, C., Roberts, B. W., & Trzesniewski. K.  (2001).  A longitudinal study of personality change in young adulthood.  Journal of Personality, 69, 617-640.

Siegler, I.C., Costa, P.T., Brummett, B.H., Helms, M.J., Barefoot, J.C., Williams, R.B., Dahlstrom, W. G., Kaplan, B. H., Vitaliano, P. P., Nichaman, M. Z., Day, R. S., & Rimer, B. K. (2003). Patterns of change in hostility from college to midlife in the UNC Alumni Heart Study predict high-risk status. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65, 738-745.

Small, B. J., Hertzog, C., Hultsch, D. F., & Dixon, R. A. (2003). Stability and change in adult personality over 6 years: Findings from the Victoria Longitudinal Study. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 58, 166-176.

Watson, D., & Humrichouse, J.  (2006).  Personality development in emerging adulthood: Integrating evidence from self-ratings and spouse ratings.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 959-974.

Donnellan, B. M., Conger, R. D., & Burzette, R. G. (2007). Personality development from late adolescence to young adulthood: Differential stability, normative maturity, and evidence for the maturity-stability hypothesis. Journal of Personality, 75, 237-263.

 

Social Context and Personality Development

 

Harms, P. D., Roberts, B. W., & Winter, D. (2006). Becoming the Harvard man:  Person-environment fit, personality development, and academic success.  Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 851-865.

Kasen, S., Chen, H., Sneed, J., Crawford, T., & Cohen, P.  (2006).  Social role and birth cohort influences on gender-linked personality traits in women: A 20-year longitudinal analysis.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 944-958.

Laub, J. H., Nagin, D. S., & Sampson, R. J.  (1998).  Trajectories of change in criminal offending: Good marriages and the desistance process.  American Sociological Review, 63, 225-238.

Lehnart, J. & Neyer, F. J.  (2006).  Should I stay or should I go?  Attachment and personality in stable and instable romantic relationships.  European Journal of Personality, 20, 475-495.

Mroczek, D. K., & Spiro, A. (2003). Modeling intraindividual change in personality traits: Findings from the Normative Aging Study. Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences & Social Sciences, 58B, 305-306.

Neyer, F. J., & Lehnart, J.  (2007).  Relationships matter in personality development: Evidence from an 8-year longitudinal study across young adulthood.  Journal of Personality, 75, 535-568.

Roberts, B. W.  (1997).  Plaster or Plasticity: Are Work Experiences Associated with Personality Change in Women?  Journal of Personality, 65, 205-232.

Roberts, B. W., & Bogg, T.  (2004).  A 30-year longitudinal study of the relationships between conscientiousness-related traits, and the family structure and health-behavior factors that affect health.  Journal of Personality, 72, 325-354.

Roberts, B.W., Bogg, T., Walton, K., & Caspi, A.  (2006). De-investment in Work and Non-normative Personality Trait Change in Young Adulthood.  European Journal of Personality, 20, 461-474.

Roberts, B. W., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T.  (2003). Work Experiences and personality development in young adulthood.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 582-593.

Roberts, B. W., & Chapman, C. N.  (2000).  Change in dispositional well-being and its relation to role quality: A 30-year longitudinal study.  Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 26-41.

Roberts, B. W., & Helson, R.  (1997).  Changes in Culture, Changes in Personality: The Influence of Individualism in a Longitudinal Study of Women.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 641-651.

Roberts, B. W., & Robins, R. W.  (2004).  A longitudinal study of person-environment fit and personality development.  Journal of Personality, 72, 89-110.

Robins, R. W., Noftle, E. E., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Roberts, B. W.  (2005).  Do people know how their personality has changed:  Correlates of perceived and actual personality change in young adulthood.  Journal of Personality, 73, 489-521.

Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H.  (1990).  Crime and deviance over the life course: The salience of adult social bonds.  American Sociological Review, 55, 609-627.

Scollon, C. N., & Diener, E.  (2006).  Love, work, and changes in extraversion and neuroticism over time.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 1152-1165.

Van Aken, M. A. G., Denissen, J. J. A., Branje, S. J. T., Dubas, J. S., & Goossens, L.  (2006).  Midlife concerns and short-term personality change in middle adulthood.  European Journal of Personality, 20, 497-513.

 

Behavior Genetics and Personality Development

 

Dworkin, R.H., Burke, B.W., Maher, B.A., & Gottesman, I.I. (1976).  A longitudinal study of the genetics of personality.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 510-518.

Johnson, W., McGue, M., Krueger, R. F. (2005). Personality Stability in Late Adulthood: A Behavioral Genetic Analysis. Journal of Personality. 73, 523-551.

Loehlin, J.C., Horn, J.M., & Willerman, L. (1990). Heredity, environment, and personality change: Evidence from the Texas Adoption Project. Journal of Personality, 58, 221-243.

Matheny, A.P., Jr. (1989). Children’s behavioral inhibition over age and across situations: Genetic similarity for a trait during change. Journal of Personality, 57, 215-235.

McCartney, K., Harris, M., & Bernieri, F. (1990).  Growing up and growing apart: A developmental meta-analysis of twin studies.  Psychological Bulletin, 107, 226-237.

McGue, M., Bacon, S., & Lykken, D.T. (1993). Personality stability and change in early adulthood: A behavioral genetic analysis. Developmental Psychology, 29, 96-109.

Pedersen, N. L., & Reynolds, C. A.  (1998).  Stability and change in adult personality: Genetic and environmental components.  European Journal of Personality, 12, 365-386.

Read, S., Vogler, G.P., & Pedersen, N. L., & Johansson, B.  (2006). Stability and change in genetic and environmental components of personality in old age.  Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1637-1647.

 

Evolution and Personality Development

 

Hawley, P. H.  (2006). Evolution and personality: A new look at Machiavellianism.  In Mroczek, Daniel K.; Little, Todd D. (Eds.). Handbook of personality development. (pp. 147-161). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Miller, G. F.  (2007).  Sexual selection for moral virtues.  Quarterly Review of Biology, 82, 97-125.

Van Lieshout, C. F. (2006). Lifespan Development of Personality and Developmental Outcome Domains.  European Journal of Personality, 20, 515-524.